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Ecological economics/eco-economics refers to both a transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary field of academic research that aims to address the interdependence and coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems over time and space. It is distinguished from environmental economics, which is the mainstream economic analysis of the environment, by its treatment of the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and its emphasis upon preserving natural capital.〔Jeroen C.J.M. van den Bergh (2001). "Ecological Economics: Themes, Approaches, and Differences with Environmental Economics," ''Regional Environmental Change'', 2(1), pp. (13-23 ) (press +).〕 One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought, with ecological economists emphasizing strong sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted by human-made capital.〔Illge L, Schwarze R. (2006). (A Matter of Opinion: How Ecological and Neoclassical Environmental Economists Think about Sustainability and Economics ). German Institute for Economic Research.〕 Ecological economics was founded as a modern movement in the works of and interactions between various European and American academics (see the section on history and development below). The related field of green economics is, in general, a more politically applied form of the subject.〔Paehlke R. (1995). ''Conservation and Environmentalism: An Encyclopedia'', (p. 315 ). Taylor & Francis.〕〔Scott Cato, M. (2009). ''Green Economics''. Earthscan, London. ISBN 978-1-84407-571-3.〕 According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation.〔Malte Faber. (2008). How to be an ecological economist. ''Ecological Economics'' 66(1):1-7. (Preprint ).〕 Ecological economists have questioned fundamental mainstream economic approaches such as cost-benefit analysis, and the separability of economic values from scientific research, contending that economics is unavoidably normative rather than positive (i.e. descriptive).〔Peter Victor. (2008). Book Review: Frontiers in Ecological Economic Theory and Application. ''Ecological Economics'' 66(2-3).〕 Positional analysis, which attempts to incorporate time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative.〔Mattson L. (1975). Book Review: ''Positional Analysis for Decision-Making and Planning'' by Peter Soderbaum. ''The Swedish Journal of Economics''.〕〔Soderbaum, P. 2008. ''Understanding Sustainability Economics''. Earthscan, London. ISBN 978-1-84407-627-7. pp.109-110, 113-117.〕 Ecological economics shares many of its perspectives with feminist economics, including the focus on sustainability, nature, justice and care values. ==History and development== Early modern interest in ecology and economics dates back to the 1940s in the work of K. William Kapp and Karl Polanyi and the 1960s in work by Kenneth Boulding and Herman Daly. However, the first organized meetings of modern ecological economists occurred in the 1980s. These began in 1982, at the instigation of Lois Banner,〔Røpke, I. (2004) The early history of modern ecological economics. Ecological Economics 50(3-4): 293-314.〕 with a meeting held in Sweden (including Robert Costanza, Herman Daly, Charles Hall, Bruce Hannon, H.T. Odum, and David Pimentel).〔 Most were ecosystem ecologists or mainstream environmental economists, with the exception of Daly. In 1987, Daly and Costanza edited an issue of ''Ecological Modeling'' to test the waters. A book entitled ''Ecological Economics'', by Juan Martinez-Alier, was published later that year.〔Costanza R. (2003). (Early History of Ecological Economics and ISEE ). Internet Encyclopaedia of Ecological Economics.〕 1989 saw the foundation of the International Society for Ecological Economics and publication of its journal, ''Ecological Economics'', by Elsevier. Robert Costanza was the first president of the society and first editor of the journal, currently edited by Richard Howarth. European conceptual founders include Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1971), K. William Kapp (1950)〔Kapp, K. W. (1950) ''The Social Costs of Private Enterprise''. New York: Shocken.〕 and Karl Polanyi (1944).〔Polanyi, K. (1944) ''The Great Transformation''. New York/Toronto: Rinehart & Company Inc.〕 Some key concepts of what is now ecological economics are evident in the writings of E.F. Schumacher, whose book ''Small Is Beautiful – A Study of Economics as if People Mattered'' (1973) was published just a few years before the first edition of Herman Daly's comprehensive and persuasive '' Steady-State Economics'' (1977).〔Schumacher, E.F. 1973. ''Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered''. London: Blond and Briggs.〕〔Daly, H. 1991. ''Steady-State Economics'' (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Island Press.〕 Other figures include ecologists C.S. Holling, H.T. Odum and Robert Costanza, biologist Gretchen Daily and physicist Robert Ayres. CUNY geography professor David Harvey explicitly added ecological concerns to political economic literature. This parallel development in political economy has been continued by analysts such as sociologist John Bellamy Foster. The antecedents can be traced back to the Romantics of the 19th century as well as some Enlightenment political economists of that era. Concerns over population were expressed by Thomas Malthus, while John Stuart Mill hypothesized that the "stationary state" of an economy was desirable, anticipating later insights of modern ecological economists, without having had their experience of the social and ecological costs of the dramatic post-World War II industrial expansion. As Martinez-Alier explores in his book the debate on energy in economic systems can also be traced into the 19th century e.g. Nobel prize-winning chemist, Frederick Soddy (1877–1956). Soddy criticized the prevailing belief of the economy as a perpetual motion machine, capable of generating infinite wealth—a criticism echoed by his intellectual heirs in the now emergent field of ecological economics.〔(Zencey, Eric. (2009, April 12). Op-ed. ''New York Times'', p. WK9. ) Accessed: December 23, 2012.〕 The Romanian economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994), who was among Daly's teachers at Vanderbilt University, provided ecological economics with a modern conceptual framework based on the material and energy flows of economic production and consumption. His ''magnum opus'', '' The Entropy Law and the Economic Process'' (1971), has been highly influential.〔Georgescu-Roegen, N. 1971. ''The Entropy Law and the Economic Process''. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.〕 Articles by Inge Ropke (2004, 2005)〔Røpke, I. (2004) The early history of modern ecological economics. Ecological Economics 50(3-4): 293-314. Røpke, I. (2005) Trends in the development of ecological economics from the late 1980s to the early 2000s. Ecological Economics 55(2): 262-290. 〕 and Clive Spash (1999)〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Spash, C. L. (1999) The development of environmental thinking in economics. Environmental Values 8(4): 413-435. )〕 cover the development and modern history of ecological economics and explain its differentiation from resource and environmental economics, as well as some of the controversy between American and European schools of thought. An article by Robert Costanza, David Stern, Lining He, and Chunbo Ma〔Costanza, R., Stern, D. I., He, L., Ma, C. (2004). Influential publications in ecological economics: a citation analysis. Ecological Economics 50(3-4): 261-292.〕 responded to a call by Mick Common to determine the foundational literature of ecological economics by using citation analysis to examine which books and articles have had the most influence on the development of the field. However, citations analysis has itself proven controversial and similar work has been criticized by Clive Spash for attempting to pre-determine what is regarded as influential in ecological economics through study design and data manipulation.〔Spash, C. L. (2013) Influencing the perception of what and who is important in ecological economics. Ecological Economics 89: 204-209.〕 In addition, the journal Ecological Economics has itself been criticized for swamping the field with mainstream economics.〔Spash, C. L. (2013) The Shallow or the Deep Ecological Economics Movement? Ecological Economics 93:351-362.〕 〔Anderson, B., M'Gonigle, M., 2012. Does ecological economics have a future?: contradiction and reinvention in the age of climate change. Ecological Economics 84, 37–48.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Ecological economics」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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